These species are categorised as ‘listed marine species’ in the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

• Sea snakes
• Seals
• Crocodiles
• Dugongs
• Marine turtles
• Seahorses, Sea-dragons, Pipefish
• Birds

Sea-snakes                       

(Families: Hydrophiidae, Laticaudidae)

• Knowledge
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions

Knowledge

• Refer p.187 of The Outstanding Universal Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Lucas et al. 1997)
  • 17 species in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA), although none are endemic to the Great Barrier Reef
  • Associated with benthic communities (except Pelamis, a pelagic species)
  • Distinct reefal and soft-bottom assemblages apparent
  • Patterns of abundance and distribution poorly known
• Refer p.62, State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area 1998 (Wachenfeld 1998)
• Decreasing abundance with increasing latitude (Limpus 1975a)
• Take 3-4 years to reach sexual maturity (Heatwole and Burns 1987)
• Long lived (~10 years) (Heatwole 1987)
• Low fecundity (8-25 offspring) (Heatwole 1987, Lucas et al. 1997)
• Abundant in shallow (<30m) or deep (30-50m), warm and turbid waters and inshore coral reefs (Heatwole 1987, Lucas et al. 1997)
• Estimates of mortality from trawling range between 30 000 and 67 000 sea snakes in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Wassenberg et al. 1994)
• Trawling of breeding aggregations may be a problem (Fry et al. 2001). In the Gulf of Carpentaria trawling bycatch shows that female sea snakes are caught more often than males and a high proportion of mature snakes are caught, “suggesting there is little impact on recruits” (Fry et al. 2001).
• Under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act), export requires a licence issued by the Department of the Environment and Heritage (formerly Environment Australia), which is subject to an approved management plan. Currently no licences have been issued.
• CRC Reef/James Cook University student, V. Lukoschek, is currently studying the genetics and habits of Great Barrier Reef sea snakes. http://www.reef.crc.org.au/media/seasnakes.htm

Conservation status

• Sea snakes are considered ‘common’ under Queensland’s Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994, and are a listed marine species under the Commonwealth EPBC Act.
• None of the species listed in the Red Data Book of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) are known to occur in the GBRMP.
• ‘No species of sea snakes are considered to be threatened’ (Marsh et al. 1993 in Lucas et al. 1997).
• Human Related Threats
• Fishing, shark control programs and aquaculture
• Hunting and collecting

Human Related Threats

• Fishing, shark control programs and aquaculture
• Hunting and collecting

Actions

• Introduction of bycatch reduction devices (BRDs) in the East Coast Trawl Fishery may assist in reducing sea snake mortality. However, there are concerns that BRDs may be less effective for sea snakes than for fishes because the snakes are morphologically dissimilar and behave differently to strongly swimming fishes that the BRDs are designed to exclude. The matter requires further investigation.
• The Species Conservation Program works with the Fisheries Issues Group of the GBRMPA to monitor and address concerns. The East Coast Trawl Fishery Management Audit recommends that there be further monitoring and research on the incidental bycatch of sea snakes in the East Coast Trawl Fishery.

Seals                       

(Families: Otariidae, Phocidae)

• Knowledge
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions

Knowledge

• Rarely found in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP)
• A few records from live strandings or carcasses

Conservation status

• Seals are listed as ‘common’ under Queensland’s Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994 and are a listed marine species under Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. None of the species listed in the Red Data Book of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) are known to occur in the GBRMP (Table 3).

Human Related Threats

• None known within the GBRMP.
• Potentially fishing, competition for food with fishermen, shark control programs and aquaculture.

Actions

• Live strandings and carcasses are recovered whenever possible and examined in as much detail as possible.
• The Queensland Environmental Protection Agency is summarising all seal records for Queensland.

Crocodiles                     

(Genus Crocodylus)

• Knowledge
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions

Knowledge

• Following institution of a 1974 ban on hunting crocodiles in Queensland, crocodile numbers are thought to be increasing on the east coast of Queensland. However, a lack of nesting habitat on the developed coast is a limiting factor on population growth.
• Only estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) commonly occur in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA). Freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) are rarely recorded in the GBRWHA (Mark Read, Queensland Parks and Wildife Service, personal communication 2000).
• Refer p.124 of The Outstanding Universal Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Lucas et al. 1997); which says that reefal island estuarine crocodiles are unlikely to have any significant contribution back to the main populations; however, they form part of the reefal ecosystem. See also Miller and Bell (1997).
• Refer p.59, State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area 1998 (Wachenfeld 1998), which says that crocodiles are considered temporary migrants from coastal river systems. Although they are found over a wide area at low densities in the GBRWHA, no nesting in the GBRWHA has been reported.
• Queensland Parks and Wildife Service records crocodile sighting information and conducts regular river surveys from Rockhampton north to the tip of Cape York Peninsula and west to the Northern Territory border.
• Queensland Parks and Wildife Service is preparing a manuscript for publication on the estuarine crocodile census data it has collected mainly from coastal river surveys.

Conservation status

• Estuarine crocodiles are listed as ‘vulnerable’ wildlife and freshwater crocodiles are listed as ‘common’ wildlife under Queensland’s Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994 (Table 3).
• Neither species are listed as threatened under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) or in the Red Data Book of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) (Table 3).
• However, both species are listed marine species, and the estuarine crocodile is a listed migratory species under the EPBC Act.

Human Related Threats

Little is known of processes that may threaten crocodiles within the GBRMP. However, they are likely to include:

• Coastal development and land-based practices
• Fishing, shark control programs and aquaculture
• Hunting and collecting
• Tourism and recreation

Actions

• A GBRMPA Reef Notes Information sheet is available.
• The Northern Region of QPWS has established a crocodile management unit to respond to issues in the region.
• Significant sighting information is collated by the QPWS (e.g. attack on a person in the Far Northern Section of the GBRMP in 1999) and risk assessment approaches to crocodile management are being developed as required (e.g. Burdekin Shire).
• QPWS relocates problem crocodiles in accordance with the Nature Conservation (Problem Crocodiles) Conservation Plan 1995 and the Procedural Guide ‘Classification and Removal of Problem Crocodiles’. The purpose of the legislation is to ensure a level of protection for the public against crocodiles by allowing problem crocodiles to be taken under a permit and their taking monitored while maintaining wild populations of crocodiles across their current ranges. The legislation is administered with the Management program for the conservation and management of Crocodylus porosus in Queensland. This program is being reviewed in consultation with community interest groups. It currently specifies who can take problem crocodiles and associated restrictions and conditions.
• The Species Conservation Program provides advice upon request and liaises with the QPWS as required.

Dugong                  

(Genus Dugong)

• Knowledge
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions

Knowledge

• Refer to recent IUCN report on Dugong Status Report and Action Plans for Countries and Territories (Marsh et al. 2002).
• Refer p.160 of The Outstanding Universal Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Lucas et al. 1997 and Marsh 1995);
• Dugong (Dugong dugon) is one of only four extant members of the mammalian Order Sirenia (sea cows)
• Only extant member of the family Dugongidae
• Long-lived (70 years or more)
• Low fecundity (1 calf every 3-5 years)
• Late maturing (between 9-17 years)
• Strictly herbivorous, foraging on seagrass almost exclusively
• The importance of episodic large-scale movements by individuals of the dugong population has only recently been recognised and is yet to be fully appraised
• Refer pages 65 and 101, State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area 1998 (Wachenfeld 1998) and the Dugong Information Kit (4^th Edition, 2002), published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)
• Recent relevant GBRMPA Research Publications include:
  • Research Publication #58
  • A Dugong Research Strategy for the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area and Hervey Bay
  • Research Publication #64
  • Procedures for the Salvage and Necropsy of the Dugong (Dugong dugon)
  • Research Publication #66
  • A Review of Water Quality Issues Influencing Habitat Quality in Dugong Protection Areas
  • Research Publication #67
  • Dugongs, Boats, Dolphins and Turtles in the Townsville-Cardwell Region and Recommendations for a Boat Traffic Management Plan for the Hinchinbrook Dugong Protection Area
  • Research Publication #70
  • Shark Control Records Hindcast Serious Decline in Dugong Numbers off the Urban Coast of Queensland & Dugong Distribution and Abundance in the Southern Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and Hervey Bay: Results of an Aerial Survey in October–December 1999
  • Research Publication #72
  • Seagrass and Marine Resources in the Dugong Protection Areas of Upstart Bay, Newry Region, Sand Bay, Llewellyn Bay, Ince Bay and the Clairview Region April/May 1999 and October 1999
  • Research Publication #77
  • Dugong distribution and abundance in the northern Great Barrier Reef Marine Park -November 2000.
• GBRMPA reports are also available on:
  • Seasonal distribution of the dugong in the southern Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
  • Analysis of stomach contents of dugongs stranded in the central region of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park: May-August 2000

Conservation Status

• Dugong are listed as ‘vulnerable to extinction’ under Queensland’s Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994 and both a listed marine species and a listed migratory species under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Table 3).
• Dugongs are listed as ‘vulnerable’ in the IUCN Red Data Book.

Human related threats

• Boats, ships and other motorised machines
• Coastal development
• Declining water quality
• Defence exercises
• Fishing, shark control programs and aquaculture
• Hunting and collecting
• Marine dredging and construction

Actions

• Declaration of Dugong Protection Areas in 1997 by the Great Barrier Reef Ministerial Council, implemented under Queensland Fisheries legislation and reinforced under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Zoning Plan 2003.
• Moratorium on the issuing of permits for traditional hunting of dugongs south of Cooktown. Extension work with Indigenous communities to ensure that dugong hunting adjacent to Cape York, north of Cooktown, is sustainable.
• Summary of recommendations to the Great Barrier Reef Ministerial Council meeting on 30 July 1999 in relation to dugong recovery and conservation.
• A multi-media campaign has increased public awareness of dugong conservation issues, especially the need to go slow in boats and to report live stranded animals and carcasses. Media and products used include TV advertising, stickers distributed with boat registration certificates, Dugong Information Kits, brochures for Dugong Protection Areas, boat ramp signs, posters and fliers for shops etc., and notices printed on locality Tide Tables for free distribution.
• The GBRMPA has funded much of the research about dugongs in the Great Barrier Reef since the 1980’s. See published reports detailed above.
• The Department of Defence is undertaking research on dugong auditory mechanisms and the effects of underwater acoustics on dugongs.
• The Cairns Area, Hinchinbrook and Whitsundays Plans of Management provide for the conservation of dugongs by not allowing people to take or interfere with a dugong in those areas. This includes harassing, chasing, herding, tagging, marking or branding dugongs.
• A tri-agency (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Primary Industries, GBRMPA) approach is enabling close examination of dugong carcasses to establish the causes of mortality and obtain further information.
• The GBRMPA website enables the general public to subscribe to an Email Listserver that posts notices about each stranding soon after they are investigated.
• QPWS publish annual reports summarising live-strandings and carcasses of dugongs.

Marine Turtles              

(Families: Cheloniidae, Dermochelyidae)

• Knowledge
  • Green Turtles
  • Loggerhead Turtles
  • Hawksbill Turtles
  • Flatback Turtles
  • Olive Ridley Turtles
  • Leatherback Turtles
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions

Knowledge

• Refer p.162 of The Outstanding Universal Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Lucas et al. 1997); which says the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) contains globally important nesting and feeding grounds for loggerhead, green, hawksbill and flatback turtles.
• Refer pages 59, 63 and 102, State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area 1998 (Wachenfeld 1998).
• Six of the world’s seven species of sea turtle occur in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP): loggerhead, green, hawksbill, flatback, leatherback and olive ridley.
• The eastern Australian loggerhead turtle nesting beaches support the only significant breeding stock for the species in the South Pacific Ocean.
• The world’s largest population of nesting green turtles occurs at Raine Island, in the far northern part of the Marine Park.
• The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park hosts one of the world’s largest hawksbill turtle nesting populations in the northern Great Barrier Reef, primarily at Milman Island.
• Flatback turtles are endemic to Australia and not known to venture off the Australian continental shelf.
• Little is known of the movements and key habitats of olive ridley and leatherback turtles in the Marine Park.
• Further information and publications about marine turtles can be found by clicking here.

Conservation Status

All marine turtles occurring in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park are listed as threatened under Queensland’s Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994, Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) (Table 3) and the IUCN Red Data Book.

Human Related Threats

• The Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia (Environment Australia 2003) outlines the major impacts associated with each turtle species in Australia. The information is based on impacts from various activities upon each genetic stock known for the species within Australia. Key human related mortality factors on the Great Barrier Reef include the following:
• Boat strikes
• Coastal development and loss of habitat
• Declining water quality
• Defence exercises
• Disease
• Feral animals
• Fishing activities and shark catching for bather protection
• Hunting and collecting
• Illegal activities
• Marine dredging and construction
• Pollution and marine debris
• Key Threatening Processes that have been listed under the EPBC Act and that impact on marine turtles include:
  • Predation by the European Red Fox with impacts on green, loggerhead and leatherback turtle nests. A threat abatement plan has been developed for this key threatening process.
  • Predation, Habitat Degradation, Competition and Disease Transmission by Feral Pigs with impacts on flatback turtle nests. A threat abatement plan is considered desirable, although one has yet to be developed.
  • Incidental catch (bycatch) of sea turtles during coastal otter-trawling operations in Australian waters north of 28 degrees South. A threat abatement plan was not warranted at this stage given current actions by industry to implement bycatch mitigation devices (e.g. Turtle excluder devices). TED’s are now mandatory in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
  • Injury and fatality to vertebrate marine life caused by ingestion of, or entanglement in, harmful marine debris with impacts on marine turtles. A threat abatement plan is considered a feasible, effective and efficient way to abate the threatening process.

Actions

• A Turtle Information Kit (Second edition 2002) has been published by the GBRMPA.
• Best Environmental Practices for observing nesting turtles have been prepared and publicised.
• Development of a population model for the southern Great Barrier Reef green turtle stock (Research Publication #81) has provided new insights into the population status of the southern Great Barrier Reef green turtle breeding stock.
• Development of a Draft Policy for turtle management in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
• Continuation of long-term monitoring of turtle numbers in Shoalwater Bay, a major foraging area for green turtles (GBRMPA contract with Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service).
• Extension work to ensure that traditional hunting of green turtles in the GBRMP is ecologically sustainable.
• The Whitsundays Plan of Management provides protection for the loggerhead turtle by prohibiting people from taking or interfering with the animals. This includes harassing, chasing, herding, tagging, marking and branding.
• A tri-agency (Queensland Parks and Wildife Service, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, GBRMPA) approach is enabling close examination of marine turtle stranding and carcasses incidents to establish the causes of mortality and obtain further information.
• The GBRMPA website enables the general public to subscribe to an Email Listserver that posts notices about each stranding soon after they are investigated.
• QPWS publish annual reports summarising live-strandings and carcasses of marine turtles.
• The GBRMPA is represented on the National Turtle Recovery Group coordinated by the Department of the Environment and Heritage (formerly Environment Australia).
• SEAMAP (Spatial Ecological Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations) seeks data on marine mammals, birds, and turtles for the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS). The datasets will be compiled for a publicly available web-based system that will allow analysis of the database. To learn more about the initiative, visit their website: http://obismap.env.duke.edu/

Seahorses, Sea-Dragons, Pipefish                                   

(Families: Syngnathidae, Solenostomidae)

• Knowledge
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions

Knowledge

• Species in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) are as follows (Dr K. Martin-Smith, personal communication, 2003):
  • Pipefish: 49 species

• Seahorses: 9 species

• About half of the world’s syngnathid species live in Australian waters.
• Populations in Southeast Asia have declined by 15-50% (Vincent 1996).
• Although little research has been conducted into Queensland syngnathid species, following are general comments on their biology, primarily sourced from Lightowler (1998) and Vincent (1996):
  • Attach to seagrass, gorgonians, drifting debris after storms or floods, live coral and mangrove roots, with floating Sargassum, or swimming freely in midwater.
  • Exist in low densities, patchily distributed;
  • Low adult mortality
  • Small home range
  • Recolonise slowly
  • Low mobility
  • Typically found in water from 1 to 15m deep; however, some species occur at 45 to 60m.
  • Short-lived (1-4 years)
  • Feed on small crustaceans and small fish
  • Young seahorses are highly vulnerable to predatory fish
  • Form life-long monogamous pairs, with males brooding eggs (Vincent and Sadler 1995)
  • Reproduction timed with environmental events
  • Detailed information on world status and trade was provided in the proposal to the 12^th Conference of Parties to CITES in November 2002 for listing Syngnathids on that Convention. (See proposal at http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/12/prop/E12-P37.pdf)

Conservation status

• Queensland’s Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994: Syngnathids are not listed as threatened.
• Queensland Fisheries Regulation 1995 lists species of fish that may be taken under each type of fishery (e.g. recreational, net, trawl, line). If the species is not listed, it cannot be taken. These lists do not contain information about the conservation status of any syngnathids.
• Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999: Syngnathids are not listed as threatened however both syngnathids and solenostomids are listed marine species.
• Conservation Overview and Action Plan for Australian Threatened and Potentially Threatened Marine and Estuarine Fishes: 12 species of syngnathids occurring in the GBRWHA are listed (Table 4).
• IUCN: Six (6) species known from the GBRWHA are listed (Table 3).
• CITES: In November 2002, the Genus: Hippocampus (seahorses) was listed under Appendix II, which came into effect on 15^th May 2004.

Human Related Threats

• Fishing:
  • Two species of pipefish (Solegnathus hardwckii and Solegnathus dunckeri ) are allowed to be kept for trade from trawling operations along the Queensland coast. This take was approved under the EPBC Act to operate from July 2002-July 2005 with a statement to the effect that it appears sustainable and accompanying provisions for its continued operation (Click here for report). The GBRMPA annually audits the sustainability of this trawl fishery in the Great Barrer Reef and has released the Audit of the Management of the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The Department of the Environment and Heritage (formerly Environment Australia) is also required to audit the fisheries operation. Queensland Fisheries Service reported in 2001 that the annual recorded landing of these two species was 7394 individuals. Current level of take for other species of pipefish and seahorses is not available.
• Aquaculture
• Hunting and collecting
• Marine dredging and construction

Actions

• Bycatch reduction devices are now mandatory in the East Coast Trawl Fishery, although how effective these will be in preventing the capture of syngnathids is unknown.
• All syngnathids are subject to export controls under the EPBC Act and can be exported only under a permit issued by the Department of the Environment and Heritage (formerly Environment Australia). Permits are only granted for captive-bred specimens or those taken under an approved management plan. Permissions to export syngnathids derived as bycatch from the Queensland trawl fishery and the syngnathid aquarium fishery have been granted by the Department of the Environment and Heritage (formerly Environment Australia) to exporters approved by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries under a management plan.
• ReefHQ aquarium, the Reef Education Centre of the GBRMPA, has studied nutritional requirements and general husbandry requirements of seahorses in captivity.
• The Species Conservation Program works with the Fisheries Issues Group of the GBRMPA to monitor and address concerns regarding fish conservation.

Birds                    

(Class Aves)

• Knowledge
• Conservation Status
• Human related threats
• Actions 

Knowledge

• Refer p.112 of The Outstanding Universal Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (Lucas et al. 1997):
  • Low fecundity
  • Highly migratory with some foraging areas separated from breeding areas by 100’s to 1000’s of kilometres, linking with other countries in the Southwest Pacific region.
  • Breeding seasons coincide with seasons or food availability.
  • The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) is at the extremity of distribution for some species.
  • Areas that are of international importance to migratory shorebirds are adjacent to or included within the GBRWHA.
  • The GBRWHA contains populations of threatened species.
  • Birds play important roles in nutrient addition to cays, and the establishment of terrestrial flora.
  • Significant aesthetic value derived from large breeding colonies.
  • 25% of Great Barrier Reef islands have nesting seabirds. There are a number of very significant islands within the Great Barrier Reef including Raine Island, Moulter Cay, Bramble Cay, Michaelmas Cay North West Island, Lady Elliot Island, East Fairfax Island and several cays in the Swain Reefs.
• Between 1.4 and 1.7 million seabirds of 22 species breed in the GBRWHA (King 1993, Lucas et al. 1997).
• It has recently been found that most of South-East Asia’s migratory population of Roseate Terns overwinter in the Swain Reefs. (O’Neill et al. 2003).
• Refer pages 57 and 103, State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area 1998 (Wachenfeld 1998).

Conservation status

• In 2002, two species of Great Barrer Reef-breeding bird species are listed under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) as ‘critically endangered’:
  • Herald Petrel (Pterodroma heraldica), which has only been recorded breeding in Australia on Raine Island; and
  • Yellow Chat (Dawson sub-species), which is known to occur in an area of < 25km² of swamp vegetation on the north-east corner of Curtis Island, near Gladstone (Garnett & Crowley 2000). A recent survey on the island provided a population estimate of between 40 and 50, but only 30 of breeding age individuals. An additional small population has been discovered in the Broad Sound area in 2003 (P. O’Neill, QPWS, personal communication 2003; Refer also to Houston et al. 2003).  
  • Certain other land birds and shorebirds are listed in other categories of endangerment (Table 3). For example, under Queensland legislation the little tern (Sterna albifrons) is endangered and the red-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon rubricauda) vulnerable.
• Table 2 lists birds recorded from the Great Barrier Reef that are included on the Japan-Australia Migratory Birds Agreement (JAMBA) and the Chinese-Australia Migratory Birds Agreement (CAMBA). The Roseate Tern has recently been submitted for inclusion in both of these lists.
• Predation by Feral Cats has been listed as a Key Threatening Processes under the EPBC Act as a known threat to the Little Tern. A threat abatement plan has been developed for this key threatening process.
• Pelagic long-line fishing appears to be a minimal threat to Great Barrier Reef birds, however some wedge-tailed shearwaters may be taken. The fishery is also listed as a key threatening process and a threat abatement plan has been developed.
• Over the past decade there have been significant declines in the breeding populations of the Sooty Tern (25% decline), Common Noddy (45% decline) and the Crested Tern at Michaelmas Cay. Declines have also been reported (CRC Reef Technical Report No. 12 Heatwole et al. 1996) in the Brown Booby nesting population of the Swain Reefs. However, more recent census information for this species in the Swain Reefs, and for Black Noddys and Wedge-tailed Shearwaters breeding on the Capricorn-Bunker islands of the Great Barrier Reef, suggest that they may undergo a cyclical population change possibly related to changes in food availability due to varying climatic conditions (P. O’Neill & R. White, Queensland Coastal Bird Atlas).
• Recent research may have recognised a new species of bird unique to the Great Barrier Reef. Studies of the Capricorn white-eye reveal its distinctive morphology and genetic isolation from other forms of the white-eye, indicating its treatment as a separate species (Kikkawa 2003).
• Two internationally recognised significant areas for shorebirds occur in the GBRWHA (Bowling Green Bay and Shoalwater Bay); land birds found on islands and cays in the GBRWHA are similar in composition to those found on the adjacent mainland. However, the GBRWHA is particularly important to populations of pied imperial pigeons, silvereyes (an endemic sub-species occurs in the Capricorn-Bunker group), and an endemic sub-species of the Yellow Chat that occurs only on Curtis Island and on some marine plains in the Broad Sound area.

Human Related Threats

• Tourism and recreation (refer Stokes et al. 1996 for an overview of these impacts on Great Barrier Reef seabirds; Ikuta and Blumstein 2003)
• Defence exercises
• Fishing, shark control programs and aquaculture
• Traditional egg collecting

Actions

• An Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000 (Garnett and Crowley 2000) has been developed to provide a national overview of the conservation status of all Australian birds, identify threats and recommend actions to minimise those threats.
• Annual and seasonal closures to visitation as well as restrictions on the number of visitors are instituted for many Great Barrier Reef islands and cays to protect breeding seabirds.
• The GBRMPA networks with other agencies and interested persons (Queensland Parks and Wildife Service, Department of the Environment and Heritage, scientists, conservationists) for seabird monitoring and to review seabird information and management.
• Advice is provided in regard to the seabird-island monitoring program conducted by Day-to-Day Management staff. The high level of natural variability in seabird numbers necessitates a high frequency of monitoring in order to detect trends (Wachenfeld 1998, p.58).
• The GBRMPA (1997) funded the preparation and publication of the world’s first Guidelines for Managing Visitation to Seabird Breeding Islands, and the proceedings of a Workshop on Oiled Seabird Cleaning and Rehabilitation (Workshop Series 15) (Walker 1994), as well as seabird-information leaflets and Reef Notes.
• Best Environmental Practices for observing seabirds have also been prepared and publicised.
• The Cairns Area, Whitsundays and Hinchinbrook Plans of Management and the State Management Plans for National Parks in the Capricornia Cays, Brook Islands and Family Islands provide for the conservation of birds in the GBRWHA by setting minimum approach distances and speeds for vessels and aircraft to significant bird sites.
• Queensland Parks and Wildife Service (Rockhampton office) maintains a Queensland Coastal Bird Atlas, including all seabird records from islands of the GBRWHA.(refer P. O’Neill, QPWS, Rockhampton).
• SEAMAP (Spatial Ecological Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations) seeks data on marine mammals, birds, and turtles for the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS). The datasets will be compiled for a publicly available web-based system that will allow analysis of the database. To learn more about the initiative, visit their website: http://obismap.env.duke.edu/
• A. Lashko is undertaking a PhD study at CRC Reef and James Cook University to investigate the genetic composition of Roseate tern flocks on the Great Barrier Reef and elsewhere.
• P. O’Neill is undertaking a PhD study at Griffith University to investigate genetic composition of Brown and Masked Bobby breeding populations on the long eastern seaboard of Australia.

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